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Natural History: ​New Study Radically Redefines Venom, Expanding Its Evolutionary Role

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23 June 2025
By Sarah Hagen

A hermaphroditic garden snail that injects sexual venom into its mating partner © Ronald Jenner

A groundbreaking new study is reshaping the scientific understanding of venom, proposing a broader definition that classifies the saliva of aphids and the chemical secretions of slugs alongside snakebites and spider venom.
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Published today in Trends in Ecology & Evolution, the research argues that venom should be defined not by its traditional associations with predatory animals, but by its evolutionary function: the internal delivery of secretions that manipulate another organism’s physiology to the benefit of the venom producer and at the recipient’s expense.

The study is led by Dr Ronald Jenner, venom expert at the Natural History Museum, who explains that the team’s redefinition draws on evolutionary theory and the concept of the "extended phenotype," introduced by Richard Dawkins in 1982. In this context, venom becomes a biological tool used in ecological and reproductive conflicts - whether to subdue prey, fend off threats, or even manipulate potential mates.

“This redefinition helps us understand venom not as a narrow, specialized weapon, but as a widespread evolutionary strategy,” said Dr Jenner. “Take the mosquito: when it bites, it injects substances that suppress immune responses, ensuring a successful blood meal. On a molecular level, this is remarkably similar to what happens when a viper bites its prey.”

The study’s findings show that many insects - including aphids, cicadas, and shield bugs, inject toxins into plants to suppress their defences, while garden slugs and snails use bioactive secretions to influence mating behavior. These uses, the researchers argue, fit squarely within the new definition of venom, unifying a broad spectrum of biological interactions under a single evolutionary framework.

Remarkably, the study also reveals that in two of the largest venomous groups - Hymenoptera (wasps, bees, ants) and Hemiptera (bugs, aphids) - venoms initially evolved not for animal interaction, but for manipulating plants. Animal-targeting venoms developed later.

The researchers further explore how some animals use venom in sexual competition. From snails firing “love darts” coated with chemicals to male blowflies injecting compounds that reduce female receptivity, these acts illustrate how venom can function in reproductive conflict.

“This broader view of venom as a tool in evolutionary conflict - whether for feeding, defence, or reproduction, opens new doors in research,” said Dr Jenner. “It breaks down traditional silos and encourages collaboration across scientific disciplines.”

The authors hope the revised definition will encourage new theoretical insights and practical applications, ranging from pharmaceutical innovations to environmentally friendly agricultural solutions like bioherbicides.
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This research forms part of the Natural History Museum’s Evolution of Life programme, which seeks to uncover the drivers and consequences of evolutionary and environmental change - crucial for understanding life on Earth.

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